Meeting the sound [ɣ]

Old English had a sound that we’ve lost from Modern English: the voiced velar fricative, represented phonetically as [ɣ].

An alternative to [g]

The Anglo-saxons didn’t have a separate letter in their alphabet for the sound—it was actually just they way they pronounced /g/ in certain contexts. And so that’s how they spelled it!

Normally /g/ was just a regular old [g], but sometimes—say, if the /g/ occurred between two back vowels (a, o, u)—it was pronounced [ɣ] instead.

Like, for example, in the word dragan (OE: to draw, to pull, or… to drag!).

Making the sound

So what is this mysterious sound? How do you make it?

One method I read suggests to start by pronouncing the sound [g] (a voiced velar stop), but then to slightly open your airway. For me this just resulted in a lot of spitting and a rather disquieting sort of strangled, choking sound.

Here’s a better way. You may already know how to make a voiceless velar fricative. It’s the sound of <ch> in German ich or Scottish loch. Start with that, then just add voice!

Voice is a humming, buzzing quality in speech sounds,. It’s what distinguishes a sound like [z] from [s], or [v] from [f]. It’s caused by you bringing your vocal cords together so that they start to vibrate. Put your hand on your throat when you’re making the sound [z] or [v] and you’ll feel the vibration.

Practice alternating between pronouncing [s] and [z], paying attention to how you turn voice on or off.

Then, make that German <ch> sound, and start those vocal cords buzzing!

The hard part for me was to stop sliding too far back down the vocal tract into the more familiar voiced uvular fricative [ʁ]—the sound of French /r/. But with practice it’s doable!

Here’s an audio sample from WikiMedia Commons:

Sources

Baker, P.S. (2003) Introduction to Old English. Malden, MA: Blackwell

Mitchell, B. & Rpbinson, F.C. (2012) A Guide to Old English, Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell

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To Old English from PIE

A few crossroads in the development of Old English from Proto Indo-European, illustrating where the various branches of the Germanic language family parted ways.

Sources

Baker, P.S. (2003) Introduction to Old English. Malden, MA: Blackwell

North Sea Germanic. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved April 28, 2019 from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Sea_Germanic

Phonological History of Old English. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved April 28, 2019 from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonological_history_of_Old_English

úlfr. (n.d.). In Wiktionary. Retrieved April 28, 2019 from
https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%C3%BAlfr

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Old Frisian study notes: On the Man who Flees into a Church

Jef hîr ên mon fliûth inna tsyureka, and tha fiund hine thêr in gelâth, al thet hi thenna bîre nêdwere dêth, thet lidse gresfelle.

If here a man flees into a church, and his enemy pursues him into it, anything he does in self-defence shall be uncompensated.

jef, if. cf. OE gif

flîa to flee. cf. OE flēon, Sw. fly

tsyurka, church. cf. OE cirice, Sw. kyrka

fiund, enemy. cf. OE feond, MnE fiend, Sw. fiende

gêla, to hunt. Etymology unclear but possibly related to Go. goljan “to greet”

nêdwere, self-defence. nêd, emergency/need (cf. ON nauðr, Sw. nöd, G. Not) + were, defence (cf. OE werian, MnE ware, Sw. vara)

lidsja gresfelle, be uncompensated. Seems to be a metaphorical use of an expression: ‘to lie fallen on the grass’.

Wirgath ma hine thêr on, sâ geldema hine mith fîfta halwe jelde, and tha liudem hunder merca, and thet hûs thera liuda.

If one throttles him in there, one must pay four-and-a half times his weregild, and a hundred marks to the people, and one’s house to the people.

wirgja, to strangle, to choke. cf. G. würgen, MnE. worry (e.g. sheep)

gelda, to recompense, pay for. cf. OE gieldan, MnE. yield

fîfta half, four-and-a-half (lit. ‘half five’)

liude, people. cf. OE leode, G. Leute)

Nêl hi thenna naut of unga, alsâ the fiund fon ungath bi hêlgena monna, and bi rêdgewena worde, sâ rêsze hi alsâ stôr, alsâ thi ther tha tsyurka bifêth.

If he doesn’t leave when the enemy has left, at the command of the holy men and judges, then he shall pay just as much as that one who attacked the church.

unga, to go. cf. OE gangan, ON ganga

rêdgeva, judge. red, counsel (cf. OE ræd) + geva, giver

rêsza, to give, proffer. cf. G. (dar)reichen, MnE reach

bifa, to attack, seize. bi [transitive marker] + fa, catch. cf. G. fangen, Sw.

And hwasâre ênne mon âsleyt innâre tsyurika, sâ rêsze hi hunder merca tha liudem and sexthech tha hêlegum; nêllath hia of there tsyurka nauvet unga, thêrre thenne on send, sâ unga thi rêdja, ther ur tha tsyurka sueren hêth, and kêthese of.

And whoever strikes a man in a church, he shall pay a hundred marks to the people and sixty to the Church; if they then won’t depart that church which they are in, the judge who has jurisdiction over that church will go and order them out.

âslâ , to strike. cf. OE slēan, MnE slay, Sw. slå

suera, to swear (an oath of office). cf. OE swerian, Sw. svära

kêtha, to announce. cf. OE cȳþan, G. künden

Nêllet hia nâwt of unga, sâ berne hi thet forme bêken bi achta merkum thes selwa deis;

If they wont go out, he shall kindle the first beacon fire at a penalty of eight marks for the same number of days.

berna, to burn. cf. OE. birnan. Sw. brinna

bêken, beacon fire. cf. OE bēacen, Du. baken

and ne ungar hia thenna naut of, sâ berne alle sine sîthar tha bêkene thes letera deis and sogenje tha liude alrec hira bî achta mercum;

and if they don’t then come out, all of his colleagues shall kindle their beacons in the next days and gather the people at a penalty of eight marks.

sîth, fellow, companion

sogenja, to gather, to collect

and hôc hira sâ tha bêkene naut ne bernt and sîne liude naut ne brench, sâ lêdema oppa hine alra êrest, and fiuch hi with tha sîthar, sâ felle hît a tuira wegena.

and whichever of those beacons is not kindled and his people not brought, that one shall be the first to lead against him and fight with his fellows, and so he shall be fined double for it.

brenga, to bring. cf. OE. bringan

lêda, to lead. cf. OE. lǣdan

êrest, first. cf. G. erst, OE ǣrest

fiuchta, fight. cf. OE feohtan

tuia, twice

wei, way

Old Norse study notes: Thor and the Giant Skyrmir

Þá mælti Skrýmir til Þors at hann vill leggjask niðr at sofa, “en þér takið nestbaggan ok búið til náttverðar yðr.”

Then Skrymir said to Thor that he wanted to lie down and sleep, “And you take the food sack and prepare dinner for yourselves.”

mæla, to speak. cf. OE maþelian, Sw. anmäla

leggja, to lay. cf. OE lecgan, Sw. lägga

sofa, to sleep. cf. OE swefan, Sw. sova

búa, to dwell. cf. OE buan, Sw. bo but here meaning to prepare.

Því næst sofnar Skrýmir ok hraut fast, en Þórr tók nestbaggan ok skal leysa.

Soon Skrýmir slept and was snoring hard, and Thor took the sack to untie it.

hrjóta, to snore

leysa, to loosen. cf. OE lysan, Sw. lösa

En svá er at segja sem ótrúligt mun þykkja, at engan knút fekk hann leyst, ok engan álarendann hreyft svá at þá væri lausari en áðr.

And then, it is said – however incredible it may seem – that no knot could he untie, nor shift any strap so that it was looser than before.

þykkja, to seem. cf. OE þyncan, Sw. tycka

engi, not any. cf. Sw. ingen

Ok er hann sér at þetta verk má eigi nýtask, þá varð hann reiðr, greip þá hamrinn Mjǫllni tveim hǫndum ok steig fram ǫðrum fœti at, þar er Skrýmir lá, ok lýstr í hǫfuð honum;

And seeing that his efforts were useless, he became angry, gripped the hammer Mjolnir with both hands, took a step toward where Skrýmir lay, and struck him in the head;

reiðr, angry. cf. OE wrāþ, MnE wroth, Sw. vred

ljósta, to strike

hǫfuð, head. cf. OE hēofod, Sw. huvud, Ge Haupt, & through Grimm’s Law L. caput

en Skrýmir vaknar ok spyrr hvárt laufsblað nǫkkut felli í hǫfuð honom, eða hvárt þeir hefði þá matazk ok sé búinir til rekkna.

but Skrýmir awoke, asking whether some leaf had dropped on his head, and whether they had eaten and were ready for bed.

spyrja, to track/investigate/ask. cf. Sw. spörja

nǫkkurr, any/anybody. cf. Sw. någon

Þórr segir at þeir munu þá sofa ganga. Ganga þau þá undir aðra eik. Er þat þér satt at segja, at ekki var þá óttalaust at sofa.

Thor said that they would go to sleep then. They went away under another oak tree. And truth be told, they were not unafraid to sleep.

eik, oak. cf. OE āc, Sw. ek

ótti, fear

En at miðri not, þá heyrir Þórr at Skrýmir hrýtr svá at dunar í skóginum. Þá stendr hann upp ok gengr til hans, reiðir hamarinn títt ok hart ok lýstr ofan i miðjan hvirfil honum; hann kennir at hamarsmuðrinn søkkr djúpt í hǫfuðit.

But at midnight, Thor heard Skrýmir snoring, like a thundering in the forest. Then he stood up and went over to him, swung the hammer swift and hard and struck him over the head; he felt the hammer’s head sink in deeply.

heyra, to hear. cf. Sw. höra

En í því bili vaknar Skrýmir ok mælti: “Hvat er nú? Fell akarn nǫkkut í hǫfuð mér? Eða hvat er titt um þik, Þórr?”

But at that moment Skrýmir awoke and said: “What now? Did an acorn fall on my head? What’s happening with you, Thor?”

því, dat. of þat, i.e. “by that”. cf. Sw. ty

En Þórr gekk aptr skyndiliga ok svarar at hann var þá nývaknaðr, sagði at þá var mið nótt ok en væri mál at sofa.

But Thor quickly went back and answered that he had just then woken, and said that it was midnight and should be a time for sleeping.

skynda, to speed up. cf. MnE shunt

mál, measurement, time. cf. OE mæl, Sw. mål, MnE meal(time)

Þá hugsaði Þórr þat, ef hann kvæmi svá i fœri at slá hann it þriðja hǫgg, at aldri skyldi hann sjá sik siðan; liggr nú ok gætir ef Skrýmir sofnaði fast.

Then Thor resolved that, if there came the chance to strike him a third blow, then he should never be seen again; he lay down and watched to see if Skrymir would fall fast asleep.

slá, hit. cf. Sw. slå, OE slēan, MnE slay

hǫgg, a strike. cf. Sw. hugg, OE heawan, MnE hew

gæta, to watch/guard

Ok litlu fyrir dagan þá heyrir hann at Skrýmir mun sofnat hafa; stendr þá upp ok hleypr at honum, reiðir þá hamarinn af ǫllu afli ok lýstr á þunnavangann þann er upp vissi; søkkr þá hamarinn up at skaptinu.

And a little before dawn, he heard that Skrýmir must have fallen asleep; then he stood up and leapt at him, swinging the hammer with all his strength and struck at his upturned temple; the hammer sank in up to the shaft.

hlaupa, to run. cf. Sw. löpa, OE hleapan, MnE leap, Du lopen, Ge laufen

En Skrýmir settisk upp ok strauk of vangann ok mælti: “Hvárt munu fuglar nǫkkurir sitja í trénu yfir mér? Mik grunaði, er ek vaknaða, at tros nǫkkut af kvistunum felli í hǫfuð mér. Hvárt vakir þú, Þórr? Mál mun vera upp at standa ok klæðask. En ekki eigu þér nú langa leið fram til borgarinnar er kǫlluð er Utgarðr.”

But Skrýmir sat up and stroked his temple and said: “What birds might have sat in the tree above me? It seemed to me as I woke that some droppings fell down on my head from the branches. Are you awake, Thor? It’s time to get up and get dressed. And you don’t have far to go now to the fortress called Utgard.

klæða, to dress. cf Sw. klädda, OE clæþan, MnE clothe

leið, way/road. cf. OE lād, MnE lode(stone)

Gothic study notes: Parable of the Sower and the Seed

Jah aftre Iesus dugann laisjan at marein, jah galesun sik du imma manageins filu, swaswe ina galeiþandan in skip gasitan in marein;

And again Jesus began to teach at sea, and a lot of the multitude gathered themselves to him; him going aboard a ship to sit at sea;

duginnan, to begin. cf. OE onginnan

laisjan, to teach. cf. OE læran, Sw. lära (possible Verner’s law [s]>[r])?

marei, sea. cf. OE mere.

ga|lisan, to gather/collect, from PG. *lesaną. cf. OE lesen. Related to Ge. lesen, Sw. läsa, to read, from the act of picking out words from an unpunctuated manuscript

sik, refexive pronoun cf. Ge sich, Sw. sig

filu, many. cf Ge. viel, Du veel

swaswe, as, from swa (so) + swē (as). cf .OE swa swa

ga|leiþan, to go forth. cf OE liþan. Developed the sense “to endure”, then “to suffer” in descendants e.g. Ge. leiden, Sw. lida

gasitan, to sit. cf. OE gesittan

jah alla so managei wiþra marein ana staþa was.

and all the multitude were beside the sea in that place.

so, the. cf OE se

wiþra, against. cf. Sw. vid

staþs, place. cf OE stede, MdE stead, Sw. stad

Jah laisia ins in gajukom manag, jah qaþ im in laiseinai seinai:

And he taught in many parables and spoke his teaching to them:

ga|juko, parable. From the concept of ‘joining together”, cf. MdE yoke

qiþan, say/speak cf. OE cweþan

“Hauseiþ! Sai, urrann sa saiands du saian fraiwa seinamma.

“Listen! Lo, the sower went to sow with seed.

hausjan, to hear/listen, cf. MdE hear, Sw. höra (Verner’s law again?)

ur|rinnan, go out/arise. From us– (out) + rinnan (run).

saian, to sow. cf. OE sāwan

fraiw, seed. cf. Sw. frö

seins, his. cf. Sw. sina

Jah warþ, miþþanei saiso, sum raihtis gadraus faur wig, jah qemun fuglos jah fretun þata.

And it happened indeed while he was sowing, one fell beside the road, and birds came and ate that one.

warþan, happen/become. cf. OE weorþan

miþ|þan|ei , while. cf. OE mid þon þe, Sw. medan

sums, a certain one. cf. OE sum

raihtis, truly. gen. of *raihts, straight. cf. OE riht, MdE right

ga|driusan, to fall. cf. OE drēosan. Developed sense of sinking into inactivity in MdE drowse.

wig, path/road. cf OE weġ, MdE way, Sw. väg

qiman, to come. cf. OE cuman, Sw. komma

fugls, bird. cf. OE fugol, MdE fowl, Sw. fågel, Ge. Vogel

fraitan, devour. From PG *fra- +‎ *etaną. cf. OE fretan, Ge. fressen

Anþaruþþan gadraus ana stainahamma, þarei ni habaida airþa managa,

Another then fell on stony [ground] where, not having much earth,

anþaruþþan, and then another. From anþar (another) + uh (and) + þan (then)

stainahs, stony

haban, to have. cf. OE habban

airþa, earth. cf OE eorþe, Ge. Erde, Du. aarde, Sw. jord

jah suns urrann, in þizei ni habaida diupaizos airþos;

it soon rose up due to not having deep earth;

suns, soon. cf. OE sōna

diups, deep. cf. OE dēop

at sunnin þan urrinnandin ufbrann, jah unte ni habaida waurtins, gaþaursnoda.

then with the rising of the sun [it] was burned up, and not having roots, [it] withered.

sunno, sun. cf. OE sunne

uf|brinnan, to burn up. cf. Sw. brinna

unte, because

waurts, root. From PG *wrōts, cf. MdE wort. A lexical split in North Germanic gave ON forms rót (borrowed into OE as rōt) and urt (plant), cf. Sw, rot, ört (herb) resp.

ga|þaursnan, to dry out/wither. cf. OE þyrre (dry), MdE thirst, Sw. torr

Jah sum gadraus in þaurnuns; jah ufarstigun þai þaurnjus jah afƕapidedun þata, jah akran ni gaf.

And one fell in the thorns; and the thorns they rose up over and strangled it, and it gave no fruit.

þaurnus, thorn. cf. OE þorn

ufar|steigan, to rise up over. From ufar (over) + steigan (climb). cf. OE oferstīgan

af|ƕapjan, strangle

akran, fruit. cf. MdE acorn.

giban, to give. cf. OE ġiefan

Jah sum gadraus in airþa goda, jah gaf akran urrinnando jah wahsjando jah bar ain .l. jah ain .j. jah ain .r.

And one fell in good earth, and gave fruit, rising and growing, and one bore thirty and one sixty and one a hundred.

gods, good

wahsjan, to grow. cf. OE weaxan, MdE wax, Sw. växa

bairan, to bear/bring forth. cf. OE beran, Sw. bära

ains, one

.l., thirty

.j. sixty

.r. one hundred

Jah qaþ: saei habai ausona hausjandona, gahausjai.”

And [he] said: The one who has ears to listen may hear.

saei, that which. From sa (the one/that) + ei (which/that)

auso, ear. cf. OE ēare, Sw. öra. (Verner’s law strikes again.)

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